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jordanalisia — Fri, 07 Aug 2009 21:41:59 CDT

The power and beauty of nature

jordanalisia — Tue, 29 Jul 2008 09:06:16 CDT

Endangered Animals

jordanalisia — Tue, 15 Jul 2008 20:14:11 CDT

South America

Europe

Africa

Middle East

Asia

Australia

Arctic and Antarctic

Endangered Species, plant and animal species that are in danger of extinction (dying out). Over 8,300 plant species and 7,200 animal species around the globe are threatened with extinction, and many thousands more become extinct each year before biologists can identify them. The primary causes of species extinction or endangerment are habitat destruction, commercial exploitation (such as plant collecting, hunting, and trade in animal parts), damage caused by nonnative plants and animals introduced into an area, and pollution. Of these causes, direct habitat destruction threatens the greatest number of species.

Extinction is a normal process in the course of evolution. Species have slowly evolved and disappeared throughout geologic time as the result of climate changes and the inability to adapt to survive competition and predation. Since the 1600s, however, the rate of extinction has accelerated rapidly because of human population growth and human resource consumption. Today, most of the world’s habitats are changing faster than most species can adapt to such changes through evolution, or natural selection. The current global extinction rate is exponentially greater than the background extinction rate. Many biologists believe that we are in the middle of the greatest mass extinction episode since the disappearance of the dinosaurs 65 million years ago.

The survival of ecosystems (plant and animal communities and their physical surroundings) such as forests,coral reefs, or wetlands depends on their biodiversity, or variety of plants, animals, and habitats, as well as the many interactions among these species. The removal or disappearance of one or several species may irreversibly damage the ecosystem and lead to its decline. For example, the undersea kelp forest ecosystems of the northern Pacific rim are some of the richest marine habitats known—they are the home or breeding ground of many species of fish and other wildlife, such as sea otters. When the sea otter population off the western coast of Canada and the United States was hunted almost to extinction in the 19th and early 20th centuries, invertebrates such as the sea urchin were left without a major predator. The population of sea urchins increased dramatically and rapidly consumed the kelp and other seaweeds, turning the rich ecosystem into a barren undersea terrain. Conservation efforts throughout the latter half of the 20th century, such as the U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act (1972), allowed for the protection and reintroduction of the sea otter to these ecosystems and the kelp forests once again thrived.

The irreversible loss of biodiversity has a serious impact on the ability of remaining species, including humans, to survive. Humans depend on species diversity and healthy ecosystems to provide food, clean air and water, and fertile soil for agriculture. In addition, we benefit greatly from the many medicines and other products that biodiversity provides. As many as 40 percent of modern medicines are derived from plants or animals. A small plant from Madagascar, the rosy periwinkle, produces substances that are effective in fighting two deadly cancers, Hodgkin’s disease and leukemia. Yet the forest habitat of the rosy periwinkle is rapidly disappearing to supply firewood and farmland for the impoverished people of Madagascar, and most of the endemic species there—that is, species that live nowhere else—are endangered.

Causes

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Species become extinct or endangered for a number of reasons, but the primary cause is the destruction of habitat by human activities (see Environment). As species evolve, most adapt to a specific habitat or environment that best meets their survival needs. Without this habitat the species may not survive. Pollution, drainage of wetlands, conversion of shrub lands to grazing lands, cutting and clearing of forests, urbanization and suburbanization, coral-reef destruction, and road and dam construction have destroyed or seriously damaged and fragmented available habitats.

Habitat fragmentation, the isolation and division of habitats into smaller areas, has caused plant and animal species in the remaining islands of habitat to lose contact with other populations of their own kind. This reduces their genetic diversity and makes them less adaptable to environmental or climatic change. These small populations are highly vulnerable to extinction. For some species, the fragmented habitats become too small to support a sustainable population.

Since the 1600s, worldwide commercial exploitation of animals for food and other products has caused many species to become extinct or endangered. The whaling industry, in which whales are slaughtered for oil and meat, for example, has led many whale species to the brink of extinction. The African black rhinoceros, killed for its horn, which is prized as a medicine and aphrodisiac, is also critically endangered. The great auk and the passenger pigeon became extinct in the 19th and early 20th centuries because of overhunting, and the Carolina parakeet perished as a species because of a combination of overhunting and habitat destruction. Virtually entire families of plants such as cactus, orchids, and cycads are considered threatened or endangered because of overcollection for commercial purposes.

Nonnative species introduced to a new ecosystem have caused serious native species declines. The nonnative, or exotic, species may be introduced either accidentally or intentionally, and either out-compete the native species or prey on them. Native plants and animals may have no defenses against these invaders, which can exterminate or greatly reduce the populations of many native species. The damaging effects are generally irreversible, and there is often no way to keep the damage from spreading. The accidental introduction of a blight, for example, virtually eliminated the American chestnut tree from North American hardwood forests. The zebra mussel, first discovered in North America in Lake Saint Clair, Ontario, Canada, in 1988, rapidly spread to most of the major freshwater ecosystems of the Eastern and Midwestern United States, altering aquatic ecosystems and displacing native mollusks at an alarming rate. In 1959 British colonists introduced the Nile perch into Lake Victoria in eastern Africa as a sport fish. This large predator drastically reduced native fish populations and caused the extinction of as many as 200 endemic species of cichlid fish. Because the cichlids are important algae-feeding fish, the lake has since become choked with decomposing aquatic vegetation, depleting the oxygen in the water and leading to further species declines.

Pollution is another important cause of extinction. Toxic chemicals—especially chlorinated hydrocarbons, such as dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)—have become concentrated in food webs, the interconnected food chains that circulate energy through an ecosystem. These toxic chemicals strongly affect species near the top of the food chain. Both DDT and PCBs interfere with the calcium metabolism of birds, causing soft-shelled eggs and malformed young. PCBs also impair reproduction in some carnivorous animals. Water pollution and increased water temperatures have wiped out endemic species of fish in many habitats. Oil spills destroy birds, fish, and mammals, and may contaminate the ocean floor for many years after the event. Acid rain, the toxic result of extreme air pollution, has been known to kill organisms in freshwater lakes and destroy large tracts of forested land.

III

Preservation Efforts

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In an effort to protect global biodiversity and encourage the study, restoration, and sound management of endangered species, the IUCN and the World Conservation Monitoring Centre (WCMC) maintain a global list of endangered and vulnerable animal species called the Red List. A framework for international conservation efforts, the Red List database assesses the status of, and threats to, animal species worldwide. To add to this and other biodiversity databases, nongovernmental organizations such as Conservation International and World Wildlife Fund conduct periodic rapid assessments (focused, intensive evaluations) of biodiversity in various hotspots—regions like Madagascar that are both rich in endemic species and environmentally threatened.

This information is used in the administration of international agreements such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), signed by 125 nations in 1973 and put into effect in 1975. The purpose of CITES is to restrict exploitation of endangered plants and wildlife by regulating and restricting their trade. Despite legal protection, however, the future of many species, such as the African black rhinoceros, is in doubt because of poor law enforcement and the activities of poachers and dealers who supply the lucrative trade in endangered animals and animal parts. Similarly, the International Whaling Commission is charged with protecting global whale populations, but lacks the authority to enforce its rulings.

Several private and governmental efforts in the United States have been mobilized to save endangered species. One immediate approach is to protect a species by legislation. The Lacey Act of 1900 was enacted to protect wildlife from commercial trade and overhunting. The Marine Mammal Protection Act of 1972 banned the killing and importing of whales and nearly all marine mammals. In addition to promoting species and habitat protection in the United States, the Endangered Species Act (ESA) discouraged the exploitation of endangered species in other countries by banning the importation and trade of any products, such as elephant-tusk ivory, obtained from such species. Although the ESA is one of the most progressive national wildlife protection laws ever enacted, it is constantly threatened by development industries unhappy with the government restrictions. Pressure from developers and from logging and mining interests also led to government efforts to roll back or circumvent ESA restrictions during the early 2000s.

The United States also has various agreements with other nations like Canada and Mexico for the legal protection of migratory birds. These include the Migratory Bird Treaty Act of 1918, the Migratory Bird Conservation Act of 1929, and the North American Waterfowl Management Plan of 1986. Canadian laws designed to protect endangered species include the Migratory Birds Convention Act of 1917, the Canadian Endangered Species Protection Act of 1996, and the Wild Animal and Plant Protection and Regulation of International and Interprovincial Trade Act of 1996.

Efforts to save endangered species also include captive breeding of severely endangered species later released in the wild to restore or add to a breeding population (a population of individuals capable of reproducing). Due to breeding in captivity (such as in zoos and specialized animal clinics), the number of known California condors, whooping cranes, and peregrine falcons has increased over the last 20 years. Genetic cloning techniques may one day help forestall extinction for endangered species that reproduce poorly on their own.

Captive breeding and cloning programs are considered a last resort, however, because such breeding may reduce the genetic diversity of the species and its ability to survive in the wild. For example, Pacific salmon raised in hatcheries may be less capable of surviving in adverse conditions than wild salmon, and if they interbreed with the wild fish, they may dilute the natural survival ability of wild salmon. Extremely difficult to successfully reintroduce to the wild, captive-bred animals are also more likely to carry disease, which they may transmit to the wild population. These programs are also extremely costly, sometimes reaching $500,000 per year per species. Moreover, captive breeding and cloning programs are a short-term repair that may divert attention from finding solutions to the original causes of the species decline, such as habitat destruction or toxic pollution. For some species, however, such as the California condor and the peregrine falcon, captive breeding has made the difference between survival and extinction.

Conservation Biology

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The scientific field of conservation biology evolved to study the complex problems surrounding habitat destruction and species protection. The objectives of conservation biologists are to understand how humans affect biodiversity and to provide potential solutions that benefit both humans and nonhuman species.

One of the approaches that conservation biologists study and implement is the development of habitat reserves and wildlife corridors. All species require a minimum amount of habitat for survival. Wildife habitat reserves are established to meet these requirements for as many species as possible. Some national parks, wilderness areas, and other protected habitats are suitable for the survival of a wide range of species. Unfortunately, the minimum area required by large carnivores such as grizzly bears or cougars may be larger than the area protected in a reserve. In order to effectively enlarge the area available to the species, protected wildlife corridors that interlace or connect separate reserves may be developed. These areas are narrower than the actual reserve but ideally allow for unimpeded travel between reserves. Conservation biologists recommend that both reserves and corridors be surrounded by a wide belt, or buffer zone, of similar landscape to maintain the effectiveness of the reserve. Conservation biologists also study and promote habitat restoration and extensive public education, and work with ecologists and taxonomists (scientists who study the scientific classification of organisms) to identify and describe the millions of imperiled species not yet known to science.

The current global extinction crisis is one of the greatest challenges posed by the rapid growth and expansion of human populations. The protection of endangered species and habitats should be a top priority for international organizations, governmental agencies, industry, and individuals if there is hope for preserving the earth’s valuable biodiversity for future generations.

A United Nations Environment Program (UNEP) report on the global environment published in 2002 concluded that over 11,000 species (including almost a quarter of all mammals) face extinction within 30 years. In total more than 5,000 plants, 1,000 mammals, and 5,000 other animals (including one in eight birds) are endangered, mostly due to habitat destruction and invasion by nonnative species. The report states that factors that caused previous extinctions are operating with “ever-increasing intensity,” although it suggests that these problems could be eased if pacts such as the Convention on Biological Diversity and the Kyoto Protocol were implemented globally. The 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity seeks to maintain biodiversity, while the 1997 Kyoto Protocol seeks to curb emissions of greenhouse gases (see Greenhouse Effect) that contribute to global warming.

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Coffee break: Recharge your brain

Twilight Zone

jordanalisia — Tue, 15 Jul 2008 20:13:31 CDT

Twilight Zone: Only a small amount of light can penetrate the water at this depth. As the water becomes deeper, the pressure increase, too. Plants do not grow here. Only animals that have adapted to little light survive.
The twilight zone is also known as the disphotic zone. Animals that live in the twilight zone include: lantern fish, rattalk fish, hatchet fish, viperfish, and mid-water jellyfish. This murky part of the ocean begins at about 600 feet under the water and extends to the darkest part, which begins about 3000 feet down. Some squid and fish can use their bodies to make light. These creatures are said to have bioluminescence. (external link): Biolumenescence 3. Midnight Zone: Ninety percent of the ocean is in the midnight zone. It is entirely dark—there is no light. The water pressure is extreme. The temperature is near freezing. The midnight zone is also called the aphotic zone. What can live in the midnight zone? The living things found here live close to cracks in the Earth's crust. These cracks give off mineral-rich materials from the Earth itself. Special forms of bacteria utilize hydrogen sulfide from the cracks for energy to make food. All other living things in the midnight zone are nourished by these bacteria. Living things in the midnight zone include: angler fish, tripod fish, sea cucumber, snipe eel, opposom shrimp, black swallower, and vampire squid.

Club Nature Help Section

jordanalisia — Mon, 14 Jul 2008 08:44:47 CDT

our home page. (club nature)

an overall summary of pollution.

Air pollution

Water pollution

Land pollution

Global Warming:a Global Problem

Natural disasters due to global warming.

Picture place

The power and beauty of nature(pictures)

Video place

Citations

The Twilight Zone

Creatures of the twilight zone

Our weekly article

Games

Chat Room. Express how you feel!

The glossary.

Endangered animals

video place

jordanalisia — Thu, 10 Jul 2008 21:22:16 CDT

best video ever!	poor seals!
see why it was banned?	fun music, not so fun topic.
true or false?	who will you believe?
w o w	That is scary

Picture Place

jordanalisia — Thu, 10 Jul 2008 21:21:57 CDT

your killing their habitat. *and them.*	soon these gracious creatures will be dead. all because of us.
*ring around the Rosie,pocket full of posies,ashes,ashes.......*	*mother nature cries* *her little baby dies.*
MY PREDICTION : in 5 years you will end up like that guy. not happy? then fix it	there soaring into extinction and we still have time, will you help, or will you let us perish?
the future. *ours.*	*why do we do it?* *global warming, a global problem.*

Citations

jordanalisia — Tue, 06 Nov 2007 19:24:34 CST

Videos:
http://www.youtube.com
http://www.google.com/

Images:
http://www.google.com -image search

Weekly Article:
http://www.sciencedaily.com
http://www.google.com -Web search

Research: (pollution,global warming,nature,etc.)
http://www.google.com -Pollution, web search

especially http://www.wetpaint.com don't forget to create your own FREE wiki in 3 easy steps!

the website for the endangered species http://www.kidsplanet.org/factsheets/map.html

Every thing on this site is copyrighted by jordanalisa, so if you want to use any of the material presented, please send us a wetpaint message!

Games!!

jordanalisia — Mon, 05 Nov 2007 20:39:08 CST

play some games on global warming and pollution!
Global Warming Interactive!
the topic: Global Warming!

EPA polluted runnoff water!
environmental issues
this isn't really a game....

Science & Nature games!
Games, Quizzes, & More!
lots of fun!!

Global Warming:a Global Problem

jordanalisia — Fri, 26 Oct 2007 06:58:52 CDT

The Problem

What is global warming?

Is the world heating up? Are all the claims about greenhouse gas emissions just empty talk? Or are there figures to support arguments that global warming, the world’s greatest environmental threat, is happening...right now?

The year 2005 was the warmest on record, jointly with 1998.

Perhaps more disturbing is the fact that the 10 warmest years globally since 1856 have occurred in the last 15 years. Figures compiled by the UK Meteorological Office and the Climatic Research Unit of the University of East Anglia for the World Meteorological Organisation, show that, in descending order, the 11 warmest years ever measured have been: 1998 & 2005 (joint), 2002 & 2003 (joint), 2001, 1997, 1995, 1990 & 1999 (joint), 1991 & 2000 (joint).

Global warming does not happen by default. It is a man-made problem. Every bit of coal, every litre of oil or gas that humans burn adds to the load of gases in the atmosphere that engulf the planet like an ever thicker blanket, trapping heat, smothering people and nature.

	About carbon dioxide (CO2):

it remains in the atmosphere for a long time; the main sources of emissions are well-known and accurately documented; there are many commercially available technologies for cutting emissions.

CO2: the main global warming gas

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the most significant of the global warming gases, accounting for over 80% of global warming pollution. Atmospheric levels of CO2 are now higher than at any time in the past 420,000 years. And this is all due to human action.

CO2 mainly from coal, oil and gas

Around 97% of the CO2 emitted by western industrialised countries comes from burning coal, oil and gas for energy. We spew approximately 25 billion tonnes of CO2 into the atmosphere every year. That's about 800 tonnes every second! Not surprisingly, a global temperature build-up on this scale is seriously disrupting the natural balance of the world's climate.

Sources: Climatic Research Unit and the UK Meteorological Office Hadley Centre for the World Meteorological Organization. NOAA – United States National Oceanic & Atmospheric Administration.

Impacts from the equator to the poles

The impacts of global warming are evident from the equator to the poles. Coral reefs bleached by increasing sea temperatures... forests struggling to move to higher, cooler locations...polar bears under pressure as polar ice shrinks...glaciers melting on every continent ….the list goes on and on. All around the world people can see evidence of areas and species harmed by global warming. But this is not a problem which has appeared overnight - it's 30 years since scientists first alerted the world to the dangers of climate change. How much longer are we going to allow it to continue?

The change in nature starts to have serious impacts on people and economics. The insurance industry puts potential economic damage caused by global warming impacts at hundreds of billions of dollars each year.

Climate Witnesses tell their observations of change.

Immediate reductions needed to stabilise concentrations

According to the UN Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), it would take an immediate reduction in CO2 emissions of at least 60% just to stabilise concentrations in the atmosphere at their present level. Whilst this kind of immediate reduction simply isn’t possible, the IPCC’s figures show how much needs to be done to put the brakes on global warming.

Without the introduction of effective climate protection policies, carbon emissions will continue to rise making it nigh impossible for mankind to correct the damage it has caused.

We need to stay below 2°C

WWF believes that temperature rise should stay well below 2°C in order to avoid dangerous climate change. It has already been shown that 2°C would bring with it a set of devastating impacts to coral reefs, arctic systems and local communities. The Earth cannot afford to go above this.

What can we do?

We must start reducing emissions now and stay on a low emissions track to avoid loading the atmosphere with too much CO2. In scientific terms this means staying well below a concentration level of 450ppm (parts per million) in the atmosphere. This means cutting emissions rapidly and deeply far below current levels.

Polluting The Land

jordanalisia — Fri, 26 Oct 2007 06:57:54 CDT

LAND POLLUTION

Tee L. Guidotti, Chen Weiping

The amount of waste produced by human society is increasing. Commercial and domestic solid waste is a great practical problem for many local governments. Industrial wastes are usually much smaller in volume but are more likely to contain hazardous materials, such as toxic chemicals, flammable liquids and asbestos. Although the total amount is less, the disposal of hazardous industrial waste has been a greater concern than of domestic waste because of the perceived hazard to health and the risk of environmental contamination.

The generation of hazardous waste has become a major problem worldwide. The root cause of the problem is industrial production and distribution. Land pollution occurs when hazardous wastes contaminate soil and groundwater due to inadequate or irresponsible disposal measures. Abandoned or neglected waste disposal sites are a particularly difficult and expensive problem for society. Sometimes, hazardous waste is disposed of illegally and in an even more dangerous manner because the owner cannot find a cheap way to get rid of it. One of the major unresolved issues in managing hazardous waste is to find methods of disposal that are both safe and inexpensive. Public concern over hazardous waste focuses on the potential health effects of exposure to toxic chemicals, and particularly the risk of cancer.

The Basel Convention passed in 1989 is an international agreement to control the transboundary movement of hazardous waste and to prevent dangerous wastes from being shipped for disposal to countries that do not have the facilities to process them safely. The Basel Convention requires that the generation of hazardous wastes and transboundary movement of the wastes be kept to a minimum. Traffic in hazardous wastes is subject to the informed permission and laws of the receiving country. Transboundary movement of hazardous wastes is subject to good environmental practices and assurance that the receiving country is able to handle them safely. All other traffic in hazardous wastes is considered illegal and therefore criminal in intent, subject to national laws and penalties. This international convention provides an essential framework for controlling the problem at an international level.

Hazardous Properties of Chemicals
Hazardous substances are compounds and mixtures that pose a threat to health and property because of their toxicity, flammability, explosive potential, radiation or other dangerous properties. Public attention tends to focus on carcinogens, industrial wastes, pesticides and radiation hazards. However, innumerable compounds that do not fall into these categories can pose a threat to the public's safety and health.

Hazardous chemicals may present physical hazards, although this is more common in transportation and industrial incidents. Hydrocarbons may catch fire and even explode. Fires and explosions may generate their own toxic hazards depending on the chemicals that were initially present. Fires involving pesticide storage areas are a particularly dangerous situation, as the pesticides may be converted into even more highly toxic combustion products (such as paraoxons in the case of organophosphates) and substantial amounts of environmentally damaging dioxins and furans may be generated from combustion in the presence of chlorine compounds.

Toxicity, however, is the principal concern of most people with respect to hazardous waste. Chemicals may be toxic to human beings and they may also be damaging to the environment through toxicity to animal and plant species. Those that do not readily degrade in the environment (a characteristic called biopersistence) or that accumulate in the environment (a characteristic called bioaccumulation) are of particular concern.

The number and hazardous nature of toxic substances in common use has changed dramatically. In the last generation, research and development in organic chemistry and chemical engineering have introduced thousands of new compounds into widespread commercial use, including persistent compounds such as the polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), more potent pesticides, accelerators and plasticizers with unusual and poorly understood effects. The production of chemicals has risen dramatically. In 1941 production of all synthetic organic compounds in the United States alone, for example, was less than one billion kilograms. Today it is much greater than 80 billion kilograms. Many compounds in common use today underwent little testing and are not well understood.

Toxic chemicals are also much more intrusive in daily life than in the past. Many chemical plants or disposal sites which were once isolated or on the edge of town have become incorporated into urban areas by suburban growth. Communities now lie in closer proximity to the problem than they have in the past. Some communities are built directly over old disposal sites. Although incidents involving hazardous substances take many forms and may be highly individual, the great majority seem to involve a relatively narrow range of hazardous substances, which include: solvents, paints and coatings, metal solutions, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), pesticides, and acids and alkalis. In studies conducted in the United States, the ten most common hazardous substances found in disposal sites requiring government intervention were lead, arsenic, mercury, vinyl chloride, benzene, cadmium, PCBs, chloroform, benzo(a)pyrene and trichloroethylene. However, chromium, tetrachloroethylene, toluene and di-2-ethylhexylphthalate were also prominent among those substances that could be shown to migrate or for which there was an opportunity for human exposure. The origin of these chemical wastes varies greatly and depends on the local situation, but typically elecroplating solutions, discarded chemicals, manufacturing by-products and waste solvents contribute to the waste stream.

Groundwater Contamination
Figure 53.7 presents a cross-section of a hypothetical hazardous waste site to illustrate problems that may be encountered. (In practice, such a site should never be placed near a body of water or over a gravel bed.) In well-designed hazardous waste disposal (containment) facilities, there is an effectively impermeable seal to prevent hazardous chemicals from migrating out of the site and into the underlying soil. Such a site also has facilities to treat those chemicals that can be neutralized or transformed and to reduce the volume of waste that goes into the site; those chemicals that cannot be so treated are contained in impermeable containers. (Permeability, however, is relative, as described below.)

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Figure 53.7 Cross-section of a hypothetical hazardous waste site

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Chemicals may escape by leaking if the container is compromised, leaching if water gets in or spilling during handling or after the site is disturbed. Once they permeate the liner of a site, or if the liner is broken or if there is no liner, they enter the ground and migrate downward due to gravity. This migration is much more rapid through porous soil and is slow through clay and bedrock. Even underground, water flows downhill and will take the path of least resistance, and so the groundwater level will fall slightly in the direction of flow and the flow will be much faster through sand or gravel. If there is a water table under the ground, the chemicals will eventually reach it. Lighter chemicals tend to float on the groundwater and form an upper layer. Heavier chemicals and water-soluble compounds tend to dissolve or be carried along by the groundwater as it flows slowly underground through porous rock or gravel. The region of contamination, called the plume, can be mapped by drilling test wells, or bore holes. The plume slowly expands and moves in the direction of groundwater movement.

Surface water contamination may occur by runoff from the site, if the top layer of soil is contaminated, or by groundwater. When the groundwater feeds into a local body of water, such as a river or lake, the contamination is carried into this body of water. Some chemicals tend to deposit in the bottom sediment and others are carried along by the flow.

Groundwater contamination may take centuries to clear by itself. If shallow wells are used as a water source by local residents, there is a possibility of exposure by ingestion and by skin contact.

Human Health Concerns
People come into contact with toxic substances in many ways. Exposure to a toxic substance may occur at several points in the use cycle of the substance. People work in a plant where the substances arise as waste from an industrial process and do not change clothes or wash before coming home. They may reside near hazardous waste disposal sites which are illegal or poorly designed or managed, with opportunities for exposure as a result of accidents or careless handling or lack of containment of the substance, or lack of fencing to keep children off the site. Exposure may occur in the home as the result of consumer products that are mislabelled, poorly stored and not child-proof.

Three routes of exposure are by far the most important in considering the implications for toxicity of hazardous waste: inhalation, ingestion and absorption through the skin. Once absorbed, and depending on the route of exposure, there are many ways in which people can be affected by toxic chemicals. Obviously, the list of possible toxic effects associated with hazardous waste is very long. However, public concern and scientific studies have tended to concentrate on the risk of cancer and reproductive effects. In general, this has reflected the profile of chemical hazards at these sites.

There have been many studies of residents who live around or near such sites. With a few exceptions, these studies have shown remarkably little in the way of verifiable, clinically significant health problems. The exceptions have tended to be situations where the contamination is exceptionally severe and there has been a clear pathway of exposure of residents immediately adjacent to the site or who drink well water drawing on groundwater contaminated by the site. There are several likely reasons for this surprising absence of documentable health effects. One is that unlike air pollution and surface water pollution, the chemicals in land pollution are not easily available to people. People may live in areas highly contaminated by chemicals, but unless they actually come in contact with the chemicals by one of the routes of exposure mentioned above, no toxicity will result. Another reason may be that the chronic effects of exposure to these toxic chemicals take a long time to develop and are very difficult to study. Yet another reason may be that these chemicals are less potent in causing chronic health effects in humans than is usually supposed.

Notwithstanding the human health effects, the damage of land pollution to ecosystems may be very great. Plant and animal species, soil bacteria (which contribute to agricultural productivity) and other ecosystem constituents may be irreversibly damaged by degrees of pollution that are not associated with any visible human health effect.

Control of the Problem
Because of population distributions, land use restrictions, transportation costs and concern from society over environmental effects, there is intense pressure to find a solution to the problem of economical disposal of hazardous waste. This has led to increased interest in methods such as source reduction, recycling, chemical neutralization and secure hazardous waste disposal (containment) sites. The first two reduce the amount of waste that is produced. Chemical neutralization reduces the toxicity of the waste and may convert it into a more easily handled solid. Whenever possible, it is preferred that this be done at the site of production of the waste to reduce the amount of waste that must be moved. Well-designed hazardous waste disposal facilities, using the best available technologies of chemical processing and containment, are needed for the residual waste.

Secure hazardous waste containment sites are relatively expensive to build. The site needs to be selected carefully to ensure that pollution of surface water and major aquifers (groundwater) will not readily occur. The site must be designed and built with impermeable barriers to prevent contamination of soil and groundwater. These barriers are typically heavy plastic liners and layers of tamped clay fill under the holding areas. In reality, the barrier acts to delay breakthrough and to slow the permeation that eventually does occur to an acceptable rate, one that will not result in accumulation or significant pollution of groundwater. Permeability is a property of the material, described in terms of the resistance of the material to a liquid or gas penetrating it under given conditions of pressure and temperature. Even the least permeable barrier, such as plastic liners or packed clay, will eventually allow the passage of some liquid chemical through the barrier, although it may take years and even centuries, and once breakthrough occurs the flow becomes continuous, although it may occur at a very low rate. This means that groundwater immediately below a hazardous waste disposal site is always at some risk of contamination, even if it is very small. Once groundwater is contaminated, it is very difficult and often impossible to decontaminate.

Many hazardous waste disposal sites are regularly monitored with collection systems and by testing nearby wells to ensure that pollution is not spreading. The more advanced are built with recycling and processing facilities on-site or nearby to further reduce the waste that goes into the disposal site.

Hazardous waste containment sites are not a perfect solution to the problem of land pollution. They require expensive expertise to design, are expensive to build, and may require monitoring, which creates an ongoing cost. They do not guarantee that groundwater contamination will not occur in the future, although they are effective in minimizing this. A major disadvantage is that someone, inevitably, must live near one. Communities where hazardous waste sites are located or proposed to be located usually oppose them strongly and make it difficult for governments to grant approval. This is called the “not in my back yard” (NIMBY) syndrome and is a common response to the siting of facilities considered undesirable. In the case of hazardous waste sites, the NIMBY syndrome tends to be especially strong.

Unfortunately, without hazardous waste containment sites, society may lose control of the situation entirely. When no hazardous waste site is available, or when it is too expensive to use one, hazardous waste is often disposed of illegally. Such practices include pouring liquid waste on the ground in remote areas, dumping the waste into drains that go into local waterways and shipping the waste to jurisdictions that have more lax laws governing the handling of hazardous waste. This may create an even more dangerous situation than a poorly managed disposal site would create.

There are several technologies that can be used to dispose of the remaining waste. High-temperature incineration is one of the cleanest and most effective means of disposing of hazardous waste, but the cost of these facilities is very high. One of the more promising approaches has been to incinerate liquid toxic waste in cement kilns, which operate at the necessary high temperatures and are found throughout the developing as well as the developed world. Injection into deep wells, below the water table, is one option for chemicals that cannot be disposed of in any other way. However, groundwater migration can be tricky and sometimes unusual pressure situations underground or leaks in the well lead to groundwater contamination anyway. Dehalogenation is a chemical technology that strips the chlorine and bromine atoms from halogenated hydrocarbons, such as PCBs, so that they can be easily disposed of by incineration.

A major unresolved issue in municipal solid waste handling is contamination by hazardous waste discarded by accident or intent. This can be minimized by diverting disposal into a separate waste stream. Most municipal solid waste systems divert chemical and other hazardous wastes so that they do not contaminate the solid waste stream. The separate waste stream should, ideally, be diverted to a secure hazardous waste disposal site.

There is a pressing need for facilities to collect and properly dispose of small quantities of hazardous waste, at minimal cost. Individuals who find themselves in possession of a bottle or can of solvents, pesticides or some unknown powder or fluid usually cannot afford the high cost of proper disposal and do not understand the risk. Some system for collecting such hazardous waste from consumers is needed before it is poured on the ground, flushed down the toilet or burned and released into the air. A number of municipalities sponsor “toxic roundup” days, when residents bring small quantities of toxic materials to a central location for safe disposal. Decentralized systems have been introduced in some urban areas, involving home or local pick-up of small quantities of toxic substances to be discarded. In the United States, experience has shown that people are willing to drive up to five miles to dispose of household toxic wastes safely. Consumer education to promote awareness of the potential toxicity of common products is urgently needed. Pesticides in aerosol cans, bleaches, household cleaners and cleaning fluids are potentially dangerous, especially to children.

Abandoned Hazardous Waste Disposal Sites
Abandoned or insecure hazardous waste sites are a common problem worldwide. Hazardous waste sites that need to be cleaned up are great liabilities to society. The ability of countries and local jurisdictions to clean up major hazardous waste sites varies greatly. Ideally, the owner of the site or the person who created the site should pay for its clean-up. In practice, such sites have often changed hands and the past owners have often gone out of business, the current owners may not have the financial resources to clean up, and the clean-up effort tends to be delayed for very long periods by expensive technical studies followed by legal battles. Smaller and less affluent countries have little leverage in negotiating clean-ups with the current site owners or the responsible parties, and no substantial resources to clean up the site.

The traditional approaches to cleaning up hazardous waste sites are very slow and expensive. It requires highly specialized expertise that is often in short supply. A hazardous waste site is first evaluated to determine how serious the land pollution is and whether the groundwater is contaminated. The likelihood of residents coming into contact with hazardous substances is determined and, in some cases, an estimate of the risk to health that this poses is calculated. Acceptable clean-up levels must be decided upon, the extent to which exposure must ultimately be reduced to protect human health and the environment. Most governments make decisions about clean-up levels by applying various applicable environmental laws, air pollution standards, drinking water standards, and based on a hazards assessment of health risks posed by the particular site. Clean-up levels are therefore set to reflect both health and environmental concerns. A decision must be made on how the site is to be remediated, or how best to achieve this reduction in exposure. Remediation is a technical problem of achieving these clean-up levels by engineering and other methods. Some of the techniques that are used include incineration, solidification, chemical treatment, evaporation, repeated flushing of soil, biodegradation, containment, removal of soil off-site and pumping out groundwater. These engineering options are too complex and specific to the circumstances to describe in detail. Solutions must fit the particular situation and the funds available to achieve control. In some cases, remediation is not feasible. A decision then has to be made on what land use will be permitted on the site.

polluting The Water

jordanalisia — Fri, 26 Oct 2007 06:56:55 CDT

Go back

Water pollution

When toxic substances enter lakes, streams, rivers, oceans, and other water bodies, they get dissolved or lie suspended in water or get deposited on the bed. This results in the pollution of water whereby the quality of the water deteriorates, affecting aquatic ecosystems. Pollutants can also seep down and affect the groundwater deposits.
Water pollution has many sources. The most polluting of them are the city sewage and industrial waste discharged into the rivers. The facilities to treat waste water are not adequate in any city in India. Presently, only about 10% of the waste water generated is treated; the rest is discharged as it is into our water bodies. Due to this, pollutants enter groundwater, rivers, and other water bodies. Such water, which ultimately ends up in our households, is often highly contaminated and carries disease-causing microbes. Agricultural run-off, or the water from the fields that drains into rivers, is another major water pollutant as it contains fertilizers and pesticides.Domestic sewage refers to waste water that is discarded from households. Also referred to as sanitary sewage, such water contains a wide variety of dissolved and suspended impurities.

Biochemical oxygen demand, or BOD The amount of organic material that can rot in the sewage is measured by the biochemical oxygen demand. BOD is the amount of oxygen required by micro-organisms to decompose the organic substances in sewage. Therefore, the more organic material there is in the sewage, the higher the BOD. It is among the most important parameters for the design and operation of sewage treatment plants. BOD levels of industrial sewage may be many times that of domestic sewage. Dissolved oxygen is an important factor that determines the quality of water in lakes and rivers. The higher the concentration of dissolved oxygen, the better the water quality. When sewage enters a lake or stream, micro-organisms begin to decompose the organic materials. Oxygen is consumed as micro-organisms use it in their metabolism. This can quickly deplete the available oxygen in the water. When the dissolved oxygen levels drop too low, many aquatic species perish. In fact, if the oxygen level drops to zero, the water will become septic. When organic compounds decompose without oxygen, it gives rise to the undesirable odours usually associated with septic or putrid conditions.

It amounts to a very small fraction of the sewage by weight. But it is large by volume and contains impurities such as organic materials and plant nutrients that tend to rot. The main organic materials are food and vegetable waste, plant nutrient come from chemical soaps, washing powders, etc. Domestic sewage is also very likely to contain disease-causing microbes. Thus, disposal of domestic waste water is a significant technical problem. Sewage generated from the urban areas in India has multiplied manifold since 1947.
Today, many people dump their garbage into streams, lakes, rivers, and seas, thus making water bodies the final resting place of cans, bottles, plastics, and other household products. The various substances that we use for keeping our houses clean add to water pollution as they contain harmful chemicals. In the past, people mostly used soaps made from animal and vegetable fat for all types of washing. But most of today’s cleaning products are synthetic detergents and come from the petrochemical industry. Most detergents and washing powders contain phosphates, which are used to soften the water among other things. These and other chemicals contained in washing powders affect the health of all forms of life in the water. Agricultural Run off

Eutrophication
When fresh water is artificially supplemented with nutrients, it results in an abnormal increase in the growth of water plants. This is known as eutrophication. The discharge of waste from industries, agriculture, and urban communities into water bodies generally stretches the biological capacities of aquatic systems. Chemical run-off from fields also adds nutrients to water. Excess nutrients cause the water body to become choked with organic substances and organisms. When organic matter exceeds the capacity of the micro-organisms in water that break down and recycle the organic matter, it encourages rapid growth, or blooms, of algae. When they die, the remains of the algae add to the organic wastes already in the water; eventually, the water becomes deficient in oxygen. Anaerobic organisms (those that do not require oxygen to live) then attack the organic wastes, releasing gases such as methane and hydrogen sulphide, which are harmful to the oxygen-requiring (aerobic) forms of life. The result is a foul-smelling, waste-filled body of water. This has already occurred in such places as Lake Erie and the Baltic Sea, and is a growing problem in freshwater lakes all over India. Eutrophication can produce problems such as bad tastes and odours as well as green scum algae. Also the growth of rooted plants increases, which decreases the amount of oxygen in the deepest waters of the lake. It also leads to the death of all forms of life in the water bodies.

The use of land for agriculture and the practices followed in cultivation greatly affect the quality of groundwater. Intensive cultivation of crops causes chemicals from fertilizers (e.g. nitrate) and pesticides to seep into the groundwater, a process commonly known as leaching. Routine applications of fertilizers and pesticides for agriculture and indiscriminate disposal of industrial and domestic wastes are increasingly being recognized as significant sources of water pollution.
The high nitrate content in groundwater is mainly from irrigation run-off from agricultural fields where chemical fertilizers have been used indiscriminately.

Industrial effluents
Waste water from manufacturing or chemical processes in industries contributes to water pollution. Industrial waste water usually contains specific and readily identifiable chemical compounds. During the last fifty years, the number of industries in India has grown rapidly. But water pollution is concentrated within a few subsectors, mainly in the form of toxic wastes and organic pollutants. Out of this a large portion can be traced to the processing of industrial chemicals and to the food products industry. In fact, a number of large- and medium-sized industries in the region covered by the Ganga Action Plan do not have adequate effluent treatment facilities. Most of these defaulting industries are sugar mills, distilleries, leather processing industries, and thermal power stations. Most major industries have treatment facilities for industrial effluents. But this is not the case with small-scale industries, which cannot afford enormous investments in pollution control equipment as their profit margin is very slender.Effects of water pollution
The effects of water pollution are not only devastating to people but also to animals, fish, and birds. Polluted water is unsuitable for drinking, recreation, agriculture, and industry. It diminishes the aesthetic quality of lakes and rivers. More seriously, contaminated water destroys aquatic life and reduces its reproductive ability. Eventually, it is a hazard to human health. Nobody can escape the effects of water pollution.
The individual and the community can help minimize water pollution. By simple housekeeping and management practices the amount of waste generated can be minimized.

Polluting The Air

jordanalisia — Fri, 26 Oct 2007 06:55:51 CDT

Air pollution can affect our health in many ways with both short-term and long-term effects. Different groups of individuals are affected by air pollution in different ways. Some individuals are much more sensitive to pollutants than are others. Young children and elderly people often suffer more from the effects of air pollution. People with health problems such as asthma, heart and lung disease may also suffer more when the air is polluted. The extent to which an individual is harmed by air pollution usually depends on the total exposure to the damaging chemicals, i.e., the duration of exposure and the concentration of the chemicals must be taken into account.
Examples of short-term effects include irritation to the eyes, nose and throat, and upper respiratory infections such as bronchitis and pneumonia. Other symptoms can include headaches, nausea, and allergic reactions. Short-term air pollution can aggravate the medical conditions of individuals with asthma and emphysema. In the great "Smog Disaster" in London in 1952, four thousand people died in a few days due to the high concentrations of pollution. Long-term health effects can include chronic respiratory disease, lung cancer, heart disease, and even damage to the brain, nerves, liver, or kidneys. Continual exposure to air pollution affects the lungs of growing children and may aggravate or complicate medical conditions in the elderly. It is estimated that half a million people die prematurely every year in the United States as a result of smoking cigarettes. Research into the health effects of air pollution is ongoing. Medical conditions arising from air pollution can be very expensive. Healthcare costs, lost productivity in the workplace, and human welfare impacts cost billions of dollars each year.

Chat about it!

jordanalisia — Wed, 24 Oct 2007 15:25:42 CDT

There is no abstract available for this page revision.

Twilight Zone Pictures

jordanalisia — Fri, 05 Oct 2007 17:29:30 CDT

Parasite: Benthic Zone	Female Angler Fish: Abyssal Zone
Bioluminecant Jellyfish: Benthic Zone	Luminectant Hatchet Fish: Benthic Zone
Tube Worms: Abyssal Zone	Eel Fish: Benthic Zone
Luminescent Jellyfish: Abyssal Zone	Albino Crab: Benthic Zone

Glossary!

jordanalisia — Wed, 11 Jul 2007 16:50:04 CDT

Please note that this glossary was compiled with defininitions from the United States Environmental Protection Agency.

Absorption of Radiation. The uptake of radiation by a solid body, liquid or gas. The absorbed energy may be transferred or re-emitted.

Acid Rain. Also known as "acid deposition." Acidic aerosols in the atmosphere are removed from the atmosphere by wet deposition (rain, snow, fog) or dry deposition (particles sticking to vegetation). Acidic aerosols are present in the atmosphere primarily due to discharges of gaseous sulfur oxides (sulfur dioxide) and nitrogen oxides from both anthropogenic and natural sources. In the atmosphere these gases combine with water to form acids.

Aerosols. Particles of matter, solid or liquid, larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in the atmosphere. Natural sources include salt particles from sea spray and clay particles as a result of weathering of rocks, both of which are carried upward by the wind. Aerosols can also originate as a result of human activities and in this case are often considered pollutants. See also Sulfate Aerosols.

Albedo. The ratio of reflected to incident light; albedo can be expressed as either a percentage or a fraction of 1. Snow covered areas have a high albedo (up to about 0.9 or 90%) due to their white color, while vegetation has a low albedo (generally about 0.1 or 10%) due to the dark color and light absorbed for photosynthesis. Clouds have an intermediate albedo and are the most important contributor to the Earth's albedo. The Earth's aggregate albedo is approximately 0.3.

Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS). The group of Pacific and Caribbean nations who call for relatively fast action by developed nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The AOSIS countries fear the effects of rising sea levels and increased storm activity predicted to accompany global warming. Its plan is to hold Annex I Parties to a 20 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by the year 2005.

Annex I Parties. Industrialized countries that, as parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, have pledged to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2000 to 1990 levels. Annex I Parties consist of countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and countries designated as Economies-in-Transition.

Anthropogenic. Derived from human activities.

Atmosphere. The mixture of gases surrounding the Earth. The Earth's atmosphere consists of about 79.1% nitrogen (by volume), 20.9% oxygen, 0.036% carbon dioxide and trace amounts of other gases. The atmosphere can be divided into a number of layers according to its mixing or chemical characteristics, generally determined by its thermal properties (temperature). The layer nearest the Earth is the troposphere, which reaches up to an altitude of about 8 km (about 5 miles) in the polar regions and up to 17 km (nearly 11 miles) above the equator. The stratosphere, which reaches to an altitude of about 50 km (31 miles) lies atop the troposphere. The mesosphere which extends up to 80-90 km is atop the stratosphere, and finally, the thermosphere, or ionosphere, gradually diminishes and forms a fuzzy border with outer space. There is relatively little mixing of gases between layers.

Baseline Emissions. The emissions that would occur without policy intervention (in a business-as-usual scenario). Baseline estimates are needed to determine the effectiveness of emissions reduction programs (often called mitigation strategies).

Berlin Mandate. A ruling negotiated at the first Conference of the Parties (CoP 1), which took place in March, 1995, concluding that the present commitments under the Framework Convention on Climate Change are not adequate. Under the Framework Convention, developed countries pledged to take measures aimed at returning their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The Berlin Mandate establishes a process that would enable the Parties to take appropriate action for the period beyond 2000, including a strengthening of developed country commitments, through the adoption of a protocol or other legal instruments.

Biogeochemical Cycle. The chemical interactions that take place among the atmosphere, biosphere , hydrosphere, and geosphere.

Biomass. Organic nonfossil material of biological origin. For example, trees and plants are biomass.

Biomass Energy. Energy produced by combusting renewable biomass materials such as wood. The carbon dioxide emitted from burning biomass will not increase total atmospheric carbon dioxide if this consumption is done on a sustainable basis (i.e., if in a given period of time, regrowth of biomass takes up as much carbon dioxide as is released from biomass combustion). Biomass energy is often suggested as a replacement for fossil fuel combustion which has large greenhouse gas emissions.

Biosphere. The region on land, in the oceans, and in the atmosphere inhabited by living organisms.

Borehole. Any exploratory hole drilled into the Earth or ice to gather geophysical data. Climate researchers often take ice core samples, a type of borehole, to predict atmospheric composition in earlier years.

Carbon Cycle. The global scale exchange of carbon among its reservoirs, namely the atmosphere, oceans, vegetation, soils, and geologic deposits and minerals. This involves components in food chains, in the atmosphere as carbon dioxide, in the hydrosphere and in the geosphere.

Carbon Dioxide (CO2). The greenhouse gas whose concentration is being most affected directly by human activities. CO2 also serves as the reference to compare all other greenhouse gases (see carbon dioxide equivalents). The major source of CO2 emissions is fossil fuel combustion. CO2 emissions are also a product of forest clearing, biomass burning, and non-energy production processes such as cement production. Atmospheric concentrations of CO2 have been increasing at a rate of about 0.5% per year and are now about 30% above preindustrial levels.

Carbon Dioxide Equivalent (CDE). A metric measure used to compare the emissions from various greenhouse gases based upon their global warming potential (GWP). Carbon dioxide equivalents are commonly expressed as "million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (MMTCDE)" or "million short tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (MSTCDE)" The carbon dioxide equivalent for a gas is derived by multiplying the tons of the gas by the associated GWP.

MMTCDE= (million metric tons of a gas) * (GWP of the gas)

For example, the GWP for methane is 24.5. This means that emissions of one million metric tons of methane is equivalent to emissions of 24.5 million metric tons of carbon dioxide. Carbon may also be used as the reference and other greenhouse gases may be converted to carbon equivalents. To convert carbon to carbon dioxide, multiply the carbon by 44/12 (the ratio of the molecular weight of carbon dioxide to carbon).

Carbon Equivalent (CE). A metric measure used to compare the emissions of the different greenhouse gases based upon their global warming potential (GWP). Greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. are most commonly expressed as "million metric tons of carbon equivalents" (MMTCE). Global warming potentials are used to convert greenhouse gases to carbon dioxide equivalents. Carbon dioxide equivalents can then be converted to carbon equivalents by multiplying the carbon dioxide equivalents by 12/44 (the ratio of the molecular weight of carbon to carbon dioxide). Thus, the formula to derive carbon equivalents is:

MMTCE = (million metric tons of a gas) * (GWP of the gas) * (12/44)

Carbon Sequestration. The uptake and storage of carbon. Trees and plants, for example, absorb carbon dioxide, release the oxygen and store the carbon. Fossil fuels were at one time biomass and continue to store the carbon until burned.

Carbon Sinks. Carbon reservoirs and conditions that take in and store more carbon (carbon sequestration) than they release. Carbon sinks can serve to partially offset greenhouse gas emissions. Forests and oceans are common carbon sinks.

Chlorofluorocarbons and Related Compounds. This family of anthropogenic compounds includes chlorofluorcarbons (CFCs), bromofluorcarbons (halons), methyl chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, methyl bromide, and hydrochlorofluorcarbons (HCFCs). These compounds have been shown to deplete stratospheric ozone, and therefore are typically referred to as ozone depleting substances. The most ozone-depleting of these compounds are being phased out under the Montreal Protocol.

Climate. The average weather (usually taken over a 30-year time period) for a particular region and time period. Climate is not the same as weather, but rather, it is the average pattern of weather for a particular region. Weather describes the short-term state of the atmosphere. Climatic elements include precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail storms, and other measures of the weather.

Climate Change (also referred to as 'global climate change'). The term 'climate change' is sometimes used to refer to all forms of climatic inconsistency, but because the Earth's climate is never static, the term is more properly used to imply a significant change from one climatic condition to another. In some cases, 'climate change' has been used synonymously with the term, 'global warming'; scientists however, tend to use the term in the wider sense to also include natural changes in climate. See also Enhanced Greenhouse Effect.

Climate Change Action Plan (). Unveiled in October, 1993 by President Clinton, the CCAP is the U.S. plan for meeting its pledge to reduce greenhouse gas emissions under the terms of the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC). The goal of the CCAP is to reduce U.S. emissions of anthropogenic greenhouse gases to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The CCAP, which consists of some 50 voluntary federal programs that span all sectors of the economy, uses a win-win approach by helping program partners save energy, save money, and gain access to clean technology while also reducing greenhouse gas emissions.

Climate Feedback. An atmospheric, oceanic, terrestrial, or other process that is activated by the direct climate change induced by changes in radiative forcing. Climate feedbacks may increase (positive feedback) or diminish (negative feedback) the magnitude of the direct climate change.

Climate Lag. The delay that occurs in climate change as a result of some factor that changes only very slowly. For example, the effects of releasing more carbon dioxide into the atmosphere may not be known for some time because a large fraction is dissolved in the ocean and only released to the atmosphere many years later.

Climate Model. A quantitative way of representing the interactions of the atmosphere, oceans, land surface, and ice. Models can range from relatively simple to quite comprehensive. Also see General Circulation Model.

Climate Modeling. The simulation of the climate using computer-based models. Also see General Circulation Model.

Climate Sensitivity. The equilibrium response of the climate to a change in radiative forcing; for example, a doubling of the carbon dioxide concentration.

Climate System (or Earth System). The atmosphere, the oceans, the biosphere, the cryosphere, and the geosphere, together make up the climate system.

Cogeneration. The process by which two different and useful forms of energy are produced at the same time. For example, while boiling water to generate electricity, the leftover steam can be sold for industrial processes or space heating.

Compost. Decayed organic matter that can be used as a fertilizer or soil additive.

Conference of the Parties (CoP). The CoP is the collection of nations which have ratified the Framework Convention on Climate Change (FCCC), currently over 150 strong, and about 50 Observer States. The primary role of the CoP is to keep the implementation of the Convention under review and to take the decisions necessary for the effective implementation of the Convention. The first CoP (CoP 1) took place in Berlin from March 28th to April 7th, 1995, and was attended by over 1000 observers and 2000 media representatives.

Cryosphere. The frozen part of the Earth's surface. The cryosphere includes the polar ice caps, continental ice sheets, mountain glaciers, sea ice, snow cover, lake and river ice, and permafrost.

Deforestation. Those practices or processes that result in the change of forested lands to non-forest uses. This is often cited as one of the major causes of the enhanced greenhouse effect for two reasons: 1) the burning or decomposition of the wood releases carbon dioxide; and 2) trees that once removed carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in the process of photosynthesis are no longer present and contributing to carbon storage.

Desertification. The progressive destruction or degradation of existing vegetative cover to form desert. This can occur due to overgrazing, deforestation, drought, and the burning of extensive areas. Once formed, deserts can only support a sparse range of vegetation. Climatic effects associated with this phenomenon include increased albedo, reduced atmospheric humidity, and greater atmospheric dust (aerosol) loading.

El Nino. A climatic phenomenon occurring irregularly, but generally every 3 to 5 years. El Ninos often first become evident during the Christmas season (El Nino means Christ child) in the surface oceans of the eastern tropical Pacific Ocean. The phenomenon involves seasonal changes in the direction of the tropical winds over the Pacific and abnormally warm surface ocean temperatures. The changes in the tropics are most intense in the Pacific region, these changes can disrupt weather patterns throughout the tropics and can extend to higher latitudes, especially in Central and North America. The relationship between these events and global weather patterns are currently the subject of much research in order to enhance prediction of seasonal to interannual fluctuations in the climate.

Emissions. The release of a substance (usually a gas when referring to the subject of climate change) into the atmosphere.

Enhanced Greenhouse Effect. The natural greenhouse effect has been enhanced by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, CFCs, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, NF3, and other photochemically important gases caused by human activities such as fossil fuel consumption and adding waste to landfills, trap more infra-red radiation, thereby exerting a warming influence on the climate. See Climate Change and Global Warming.

Evapotranspiration. The sum of evaporation and plant transpiration. Potential evapotranspiration is the amount of water that could be evaporated or transpired at a given temperature and humidity, if there was plenty of water available. Actual evapotranspiration can not be any greater than precipitation, and will usually be less because some water will run off in rivers and flow to the oceans. If potential evapotranspiration is greater than actual precipitation, then soils are extremely dry during at least a major part of the year.

Feedback Mechanisms. A mechanism that connects one aspect of a system to another. The connection can be either amplifying (positive feedback) or moderating (negative feedback). See also Climate Feedback.

Carbon Dioxide Fertilization. An expression (sometimes reduced to 'fertilization') used to denote increased plant growth due to a higher carbon dioxide concentration.

Fertilization. A term used to denote efforts to enhance plant growth by increased application of nitrogen-based fertilizer or increased deposition of nitrates in precipitation.

Fluorocarbons. Carbon-fluorine compounds that often contain other elements such as hydrogen, chlorine, or bromine. Common fluorocarbons include chlorofluorocarbons and related compounds (also know as ozone depleting substances), hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs), and perfluorcarbons (PFCs).

Forcing Mechanism. A process that alters the energy balance of the climate system, i.e. changes the relative balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infrared radiation from Earth. Such mechanisms include changes in solar irradiance, volcanic eruptions, and enhancement of the natural greenhouse effect by emission of carbon dioxide. See also Radiative Forcing.

Fossil Fuel. A general term for combustible geologic deposits of carbon in reduced (organic) form and of biological origin, including coal, oil, natural gas, oil shales, and tar sands. A major concern is that they emit carbon dioxide into the atmosphere when burnt, thus significantly contributing to the enhanced greenhouse effect.

Fossil Fuel Combustion. Burning of coal, oil (including gasoline), or natural gas. This burning, usually to generate energy, releases carbon dioxide, as well as combustion by products that can include unburned hydrocarbons, methane, and carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide, methane, and many of the unburned hydrocarbons slowly oxidize into carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Common sources of fossil fuel combustion include cars and electric utilities.

Framework Convention on Climate Change (). The landmark international treaty unveiled at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED, also known as the "Rio Summit"), in June 1992. The FCCC commits signatory countries to stabilize anthropogenic (i.e., human-induced) greenhouse gas emissions to 'levels that would prevent dangerous anthropogenic interference with the climate system'. The FCCC also requires that all signatory parties develop and update national inventories of anthropogenic emissions of all greenhouse gases not otherwise controlled by the Montreal Protocol. Out of 155 countries that have ratified this accord, the U.S. was the first industrialized nation to do so.

General Circulation Model (GCM). A global, three-dimensional computer model of the climate system which can be used to simulate human-induced climate change. GCMs are highly complex and they represent the effects of such factors as reflective and absorptive properties of atmospheric water vapor, greenhouse gas concentrations, clouds, annual and daily solar heating, ocean temperatures and ice boundaries. The most recent GCMs include global representations of the atmosphere, oceans, and land surface.

Geosphere. The soils, sediments, and rock layers of the Earth's crust, both continental and beneath the ocean floors.

Global Warming. An increase in the near surface temperature of the Earth. Global warming has occurred in the distant past as the result of natural influences, but the term is most often used to refer to the warming predicted to occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases. Scientists generally agree that the Earth's surface has warmed by about 1 degree Fahrenheit in the past 140 years. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) recently concluded that increased concentrations of greenhouse gases are causing an increase in the Earth's surface temperature and that increased concentrations of sulfate aerosols have led to relative cooling in some regions, generally over and downwind of heavily industrialized areas. Also see Climate Change and Enhanced Greenhouse Effect.

Global Warming Potential (GWP). The index used to translate the level of emissions of various gases into a common measure in order to compare the relative radiative forcing of different gases without directly calculating the changes in atmospheric concentrations. GWPs are calculated as the ratio of the radiative forcing that would result from the emissions of one kilogram of a greenhouse gas to that from emission of one kilogram of carbon dioxide over a period of time (usually 100 years). Gases involved in complex atmospheric chemical processes have not been assigned GWPs due to complications that arise. Greenhouse gases are expressed in terms of Carbon Dioxide Equivalent. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) has presented these GWPs and regularly updates them in new assessments. The chart below shows the original GWPs (assigned in 1990) and the most recent GWPs (assigned in 1996) for the most important greenhouse gases.

GAS
GWP 1990
GWP 1996

Carbon Dioxide 1 1

Methane 22 21

Nitrous Oxide 270 310

HFC-134a 1,200 1,300

HFC-23 10,000 11,700

HFC-152a 150 140

HCF-125 NA* 2,800

PFCs** 5,400 7,850

SF6
NA* 23,900

* Not Applicable. GWP was not yet estimated for this gas.

**This figure is an average GWP for the two PFCs, CF4 and C2F6.

Greenhouse Effect. The effect produced as greenhouse gases allow incoming solar radiation to pass through the Earth's atmosphere, but prevent most of the outgoing infra-red radiation from the surface and lower atmosphere from escaping into outer space. This process occurs naturally and has kept the Earth's temperature about 59 degrees F warmer than it would otherwise be. Current life on Earth could not be sustained without the natural greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse Gas. Any gas that absorbs infra-red radiation in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), halogenated fluorocarbons (HCFCs) , ozone (O3), perfluorinated carbons (PFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs).

Halocarbons. Chemicals consisting of carbon, sometimes hydrogen, and either chlorine, fluorine bromine or iodine.

Halons. These man-made substances (also known as bromofluorocarbons) are chlorofluorocarbons that contain bromine. See also Chlorofluorocarbons and Related Compounds.

Hydrocarbons. Substances containing only hydrogen and carbon. Fossil fuels are made up of hydrocarbons. Some hydrocarbon compounds are major air pollutants.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). These chemicals (along with perfluorocarbons) were introduced as alternatives to ozone depleting substances in serving many industrial, commercial, and personal needs. HFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. They do not significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are powerful greenhouse gases with global warming potentials ranging from 140 (HFC-152a) to 12,100 (HFC-23).

Hydrosphere. The part of the Earth composed of water including clouds, oceans, seas, ice caps, glaciers, lakes, rivers, underground water supplies, and atmospheric water vapor.

HyperText.On the web, text links move you easily from one location to another. For example, go to the site's navigation page.

Ice Core. A cylindrical section of ice removed from a glacier or an ice sheet in order to study climate patterns of the past. By performing chemical analyses on the air trapped in the ice, scientists can estimate the percentage of carbon dioxide and other trace gases in the atmosphere at that time.

Infra-red Radiation. The heat energy that is emitted from all solids, liquids, and gases. In the context of the greenhouse issue, the term refers to the heat energy emitted by the Earth's surface and its atmosphere. Greenhouse gases strongly absorb this radiation in the Earth's atmosphere, and reradiate some back towards the surface, creating the greenhouse effect.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The IPCC was established jointly by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization in 1988. The purpose of the IPCC is to assess information in the scientific and technical literature related to all significant components of the issue of climate change. The IPCC draws upon hundreds of the world's expert scientists as authors and thousands as expert reviewers. Leading experts on climate change and environmental, social, and economic sciences from some 60 nations have helped the IPCC to prepare periodic assessments of the scientific underpinnings for understanding global climate change and its consequences. With its capacity for reporting on climate change, its consequences, and the viability of adaptation and mitigation measures, the IPCC is also looked to as the official advisory body to the world's governments on the state of the science of the climate change issue. For example, the IPCC organized the development of internationally accepted methods for conducting national greenhouse gas emission inventories.

Joint Implementation. Agreements made between two or more nations under the auspices of the Framework Convention on Climate Change to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

Lifetime (Atmospheric). The lifetime of a greenhouse gas refers to the approximate amount of time it would take for the anthropogenic increment to an atmospheric pollutant concentration to return to its natural level (assuming emissions cease) as a result of either being converted to another chemical compound or being taken out of the atmosphere via a sink. This time depends on the pollutant's sources and sinks as well as its reactivity. The lifetime of a pollutant is often considered in conjunction with the mixing of pollutants in the atmosphere; a long lifetime will allow the pollutant to mix throughout the atmosphere. Average lifetimes can vary from about a week (sulfate aerosols) to more than a century (CFCs, carbon dioxide).

Mauna Loa. A volcano on the island of Hawaii where scientists have maintained the longest continuous collection of reliable daily atmospheric records.

Meteorology. The science of weather-related phenomena.

Methane (CH4). A hydrocarbon that is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential most recently estimated at 24.5. Methane is produced through anaerobic (without oxygen) decomposition of waste in landfills, animal digestion, decomposition of animal wastes, production and distribution of natural gas and oil, coal production , and incomplete fossil fuel combustion. The atmospheric concentration of methane has been shown to be increasing at a rate of about 0.6% per year and the concentration of about 1.7 parts per million by volume (ppmv) is more than twice its preindustrial value. However, the rate of increase of methane in the atmosphere may be stabilizing.

Metric Ton. Common international measurement for the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions. A metric ton is equal to 2205 lbs or 1.1 short tons.

Mount Pinatubo. A volcano in the Philippine Islands that erupted in 1991. The eruption of Mount Pinatubo ejected enough particulate and sulfate aerosol matter into the atmosphere to block some of the incoming solar radiation from reaching Earth's atmosphere. This effectively cooled the planet from 1992 to 1994, masking the warming that had been occurring for most of the 1980s and 1990s.

Nitrogen Oxides (NOx). Gases consisting of one molecule of nitrogen and varying numbers of oxygen molecules. Nitrogen oxides are produced in the emissions of vehicle exhausts and from power stations. In the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides can contribute to formation of photochemical ozone (smog), can impair visibility, and have health consequences; they are thus considered pollutants.

Nitrous Oxide (N2O). A powerful greenhouse gas with a global warming potential of 320. Major sources of nitrous oxide include soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.

Ozone (O3). Ozone consists of three atoms of oxygen bonded together in contrast to normal atmospheric oxygen which consists of two atoms of oxygen. Ozone is an important greenhouse gas found in both the stratosphere (about 90% of the total atmospheric loading) and the troposphere (about 10%). Ozone has other effects beyond acting as a greenhouse gas. In the stratosphere, ozone provides a protective layer shielding the Earth from ultraviolet radiation and subsequent harmful health effect on humans and the environment. In the troposphere, oxygen molecules in ozone combine with other chemicals and gases (oxidization) to cause smog.

Particulates. Tiny pieces of solid or liquid matter, such as soot, dust, fumes, or mist.

Perfluorocarbons (PFCs). A group of human-made chemicals composed of carbon and fluorine only: CF4 and C2F6. These chemicals, specifically CF4 and C2F6, (along with hydrofluorocarbons) were introduced as alternatives to the ozone depleting substances. In addition, they are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. PFCs do not harm the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are powerful greenhouse gases: CF4 has a global warming potential (GWP) of 6,300 and C2F6 has a GWP of 12,500.

Photosynthesis. The process by which green plants use light to synthesize organic compounds from carbon dioxide and water. In the process oxygen and water are released. Increased levels of carbon dioxide can increase net photosynthesis in some plants. Plants create a very important reservoir for carbon dioxide.

Pollutant. Strictly, too much of any substance in the wrong place or at the wrong time is a pollutant. More specifically, atmospheric pollution may be defined as the presence of substances in the atmosphere, resulting from man-made activities or from natural processes that cause adverse effects to human health, property, and the environment.

Precautionary Approach. The approach promoted under the Framework Convention of Climate Change to help achieve stabilization of greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere at a level that would prevent dangerous interference with the climate system.

Precession. The tendency of the Earth's axis to wobble in space over a period of 23,000 years. The Earth's precession is one of the factors that results in the planet receiving different amounts of solar energy over extended periods of time.

Radiation. Energy emitted in the form of electromagnetic waves. Radiation has differing characteristics depending upon the wavelength. Because the radiation from the Sun is relatively energetic, it has a short wavelength (ultra-violet, visible, and near infra-red) while energy re-radiated from the Earth's surface and the atmosphere has a longer wavelength (infra-red radiation) because the Earth is cooler than the Sun.

Radiative Forcing. A change in the balance between incoming solar radiation and outgoing infra-red radiation. Without any radiative forcing, solar radiation coming to the Earth would continue to be approximately equal to the infra-red radiation emitted from the Earth. The addition of greenhouse gases traps and increased fraction of the infra-red radiation, reradiating it back toward the surface and creating a warming influence (i.e., positive radiative forcing because incoming solar radiation will exceed outgoing infra-red radiation).

Residence Time. The average time spent in a reservoir by an individual atom or molecule. Also, the age of a molecule when it leaves the reservoir. With respect to greenhouse gases, residence time usually refers to how long a particular molecule remains in the atmosphere.

Respiration. The process by which animals use up stored foods (by combustion with oxygen) to produce energy.

Short Ton. Common measurement for a ton in the United States. A short ton is equal to 2,000 lbs or 0.907 metric tons.

Sink. A reservoir that uptakes a pollutant from another part of its cycle. Soil and trees tend to act as natural sinks for carbon.

Solar Radiation. Energy from the Sun. Also referred to as short-wave radiation. Of importance to the climate system, solar radiation includes ultra-violet radiation, visible radiation, and infra-red radiation.

Stratosphere. The part of the atmosphere directly above the troposphere. See Atmosphere.

Sulfate Aerosol. Particulate matter that consists of compounds of sulfur formed by the interaction of sulfur dioxide and sulfur trioxide with other compounds in the atmosphere. Sulfate aerosols are injected into the atmosphere from the combustion of fossil fuels and the eruption of volcanoes like Mt. Pinatubo. Recent theory suggests that sulfate aerosols may lower the earth's temperature by reflecting away solar radiation (negative radiative forcing). Global Climate Models which incorporate the effects of sulfate aerosols more accurately predict global temperature variations.

Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). A compound composed of one sulfur and two oxygen molecules. Sulfur dioxide emitted into the atmosphere through natural and anthropogenic processes is changed in a complex series of chemical reactions in the atmosphere to sulfate aerosols. These aerosols result in negative radiative forcing (i.e., tending to cool the Earth's surface).

Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6). A very powerful greenhouse gas used primarily in electrical transmission and distribution systems. SF6 has a global warming potential of 24,900.

Trace Gas. Any one of the less common gases found in the Earth's atmosphere. Nitrogen, oxygen, and argon make up more than 99 percent of the Earth's atmosphere. Other gases, such as carbon dioxide, water vapor, methane, oxides of nitrogen, ozone, and ammonia, are considered trace gases. Although relatively unimportant in terms of their absolute volume, they have significant effects on the Earth's weather and climate.

Troposphere. The lowest layer of the atmosphere. The troposphere extends from the Earth's surface up to about 10-15 km. See also Atmosphere.

Tropospheric Ozone (O3). Ozone that is located in the troposphere and plays a significant role in the greenhouse gas effect and urban smog. See Ozone for more details.

Tropospheric Ozone Precursor. Gases that influence the rate at which ozone is created and destroyed in the atmosphere. Such gases include: carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and nonmethane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs).

Water Vapor. The most abundant greenhouse gas, it is the water present in the atmosphere in gaseous form. Water vapor is an important part of the natural greenhouse effect. While humans are not significantly increasing its concentration, it contributes to the enhanced greenhouse effect because the warming influence of greenhouse gases leads to a positive water vapor feedback. In addition to its role as a natural greenhouse gas, water vapor plays an important role in regulating the temperature of the planet because clouds form when excess water vapor in the atmosphere condenses to form ice and water droplets and precipitation.

Weather. Weather is the specific condition of the atmosphere at a particular place and time. It is measured in terms of such things as wind, temperature, humidity, atmospheric pressure, cloudiness, and precipitation. In most places, weather can change from hour-to-hour, day-to-day, and season-to-season. Climate is the average of weather over time and space. A simple way of remembering the difference is that 'climate' is what you expect (e.g., cold winters) and 'weather' is what you get (e.g., a blizzard).

Copyright ? 2003 US Environmental Protection Agency.

© 2006 GlobalWarming.org

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GAS	GWP 1990	GWP 1996
Carbon Dioxide	1	1
Methane	22	21
Nitrous Oxide	270	310
HFC-134a	1,200	1,300
HFC-23	10,000	11,700
HFC-152a	150	140
HCF-125	NA*	2,800
PFCs**	5,400	7,850
SF6	NA*	23,900

Club Nature - Recently Updated Pages

Home:pollution

The power and beauty of nature

Endangered Animals

Causes

Preservation Efforts

Conservation Biology

Twilight Zone

Club Nature Help Section

video place

best video ever!

poor seals!

see why it was banned?

fun music, not so fun topic.

Picture Place

your killing their habitat.and them.

soon these gracious creatures will be dead.all because of us.

ring around the Rosie,pocket full of posies,ashes,ashes.......

mother nature criesher little baby dies.

Citations

Games!!

Global Warming:a Global Problem

What is global warming?

Polluting The Land

LAND POLLUTION

Tee L. Guidotti, Chen Weiping

polluting The Water

Polluting The Air

Chat about it!

Twilight Zone Pictures

Glossary!

hall of pictures continued...

your killing their habitat.

and them.

soon these gracious creatures will be dead.

all because of us.

mother nature cries

her little baby dies.